ARTUKUŁY W CZASOPISMACH Z LISTY FILADELFIJSKIEJ

Spectral signatures of fluorescence and light absorption to identify crude oils found in the marine environment

To protect the natural marine ecosystem, it is necessary to continuously enhance knowledge of environmental contamination, including oil pollution. Therefore, to properly track the qualitative and quantitative changes in the natural components of seawater, a description of the essential spectral features describing petroleum products is necessary. This study characterizes two optically-different types of crude oils (Petrobaltic and Romashkino) _ substances belonging to multi-fluorophoric systems. To obtain the spectral features of crude oils, the excitation-emission spectroscopy technique was applied. The fluorescence and light absorption properties for various concentrations of oils at a stabilized temperature are described. Both excitation-emission spectra (EEMs) and absorption spectra of crude oils are discussed. Based on the EEM spectra, both excitation end emission peaks for the wavelength independent fluorescence maximum (Exmax/Emmax) _ characteristic points for each type of oil _ were identified and compared with the literature data concerning typical marine chemical structures.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2971/jeos.2014.14029]
Keywords: Excitation-emission spectra, fluorescence spectroscopy, absorption spectra, oil pollution, seawater
Full paper: http://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/14029/1223

Comparison of the spectral-angular properties of light scattered in the Baltic Sea and oil emulsions

Angular distributions of scattered light, which are described by one of two forms, i.e. the Volume Scattering Function (VSF) or the phase function, are the least-known optical properties of seawater. This is because there is currently no commercially available instrument commonly used for such measurements. In particular, little is known about the spectral variability of VSF. The spectral properties of VSF can be presented by linear slopes of a scattering spectrum separately for all scattering angles. Through research conducted using a prototype Volume Scattering Meter (VSM), the linear slopes were determined for three Baltic Sea marine regions: open Baltic Sea waters, the Gulf of Gdansk and the mouth of the Vistula River. In this paper, the spectral slopes of VSFs of those waters are compared with VSFs of oil-in-water emulsions. The optical properties of crude oil extracted from the Baltic seabed, called Petrobaltic, were taken for calculations. The results show that VSFs of oil emulsions differ from those of natural waters, especially close to the perpendicular direction of scattering. For scattering angles between 70° and 120° there is an increase observed for oil emulsions which distinguishes them from VSFs of Baltic waters. While the spectral slopes of VSFs of oil emulsions differ from those of Baltic water across almost the entire angular range, excluding backward directions close to 180°.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2971/jeos.2014.14017]
Keywords: Volume scattering function, oil emulsion, seawater
Full paper: http://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/14017

Modeling of the light transfer in a water column polluted with oil suspension

The radiance field in oil-polluted seawater determined at various depths for the central band of the light spectrum (547 nm) is considered. In the aquatic model, a flat sea surface, a cloud-free sky and selected inherent optical properties (IOPs) of natural seawater and oil-in-water emulsion are taken into account. The representative results of Monte Carlo photon trace simulations are presented for the directional radiance distribution (L), the directional distribution of the radiance reflectance (RL) and the intensity of downward and upward irradiance (E).
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2971/jeos.2013.13067]
Keywords: Radiative transfer, seawater, oil suspension, photon trace simulation, environmental m
Full paper: http://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/13067/1090

Optical contrast of oil dispersed in seawater under windy conditions

Oil pollution of natural waters represents a serious threat for aquatic ecosystems, and the assessment of the degree of pollution requires measurement strategies including remote sensing and modeling. While surface oil pollution is relatively easy to detect with radar or optical remote sensing, underwater oil emulsions can only be detected using visible light as an information carrier. Here the Michelson contrast of sea area polluted by an oil-in-water emulsion under various wind conditions is simulated through Monte-Carlo modeling. The results show the premise for optimal direction of observations in which the possibility of detecting the emulsified oil is maximized.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2971/jeos.2013.13051]
Keywords: Air-sea interactions, oil pollutions, radiative transfer, Monte Carlo method, remote sensing reflectance
Full paper: http://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/13051/1043

Influence of oil-in-water emulsions on fluorescence properties as observed by excitation-emission spectra

Oil poses a major threat to marine ecosystems. This work describes a set of studies focused on introducing an efficient method for the identification of oil in the form of oil emulsions through fluorescence spectra analyses. Hence the concept of classification of oil pollution in seawater based on fluorescence spectroscopy using a high sensitive fluorimeter [1] suitable for laboratory and in situ measurements is introduced. We consider that this approach, in the future, will make it possible to collect specific fluorescence information allowing us to build a base of the oil standards. Here we examined excitation-emission fluorescence spectra (EEMs) of water containing oil-in-water emulsion prepared artificially under laboratory conditions. Water polluted with oil-in-water emulsion was studied with the objective to estimate differences in three-dimensional fluorescence spectra. Studies included various types of oils and oil concentrations. Essential differences in fluorescence spectra for various oils are indicated.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2971/jeos.2013.13069]
Keywords: Excitation-emission spectra, fluorescence spectroscopy, oil emulsion, oil pollution, seawater
Full paper: http://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/13069/1093

Spectral properties of natural and oil polluted Baltic seawater _ results of measurements and modelling

Seawater in addition to natural components such as living and non-living organic matter contains also components artificially introduced into the marine environment, such as oil substances. These components, present in the surface layer of the sea, can significantly affect radiative transfer processes. Therefore, taking into account these processes in remote sensing measurements can improve assessment of the environment. To improve local seawater optical models, it is necessary to measure the luminescence properties of all components of seawater as well as the water leaving radiance values. Additionally, substances which form the surface microlayer (surfactants _ surface active agents) can affect both the dynamic characteristics of the fluxes (in particular the gas exchange and marine aerosol production) as well as inherent optical properties of surface seawater. This paper contains both the results of research focused on introducing of an efficient method for identifying oils by their fluorescence spectra as well as a marine experiment on the identification of luminescent properties of surfactants _ sampled in different regions of the Baltic Sea. Moreover, the aim of the presented study is to assess the impact of the oil emulsion to spectral water leaving signal. Those results are obtained both from running Monte Carlo radiative transfer code and from approximated formulas.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2013-01992-x]
Full paper: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1140%2Fepjst%2Fe2013-01992-x

Signal of single scattering albedo in water leaving polarization

The purpose of this article is to examine whether the change in single scattering albedo in the surface layer of the sea will cause significant changes in the polarization of light emerging from the sea. The results of a polarization resolving Monte Carlo radiative transfer calculations are presented. Bubble clouds of different bubble concentrations are used to achieve a wide range of single scattering albedo variability. The variability of the polarization signal is largest in the direction looking towards the sun which is unfortunate due to sun reflection. However the variability is also significant at direction perpendicular to solar azimuth angle which should it make possible to use this signal in remote sensing. The polarization degree of water leaving radiation, together with reflectance can be used to determine the backscattering ratio of the observed sea water.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2971/jeos.2013.13055]
Keywords: Oceanic light scattering, degree of polarization, single scattering albedo
Full paper: https://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/13055

MODELLING THE INFLUENCE OF OIL CONTENT ON OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SEAWATER IN THE BALTIC SEA

The accuracy and correct interpretation of optical parameters of seawater depend on the complete information osn the interactions between seawater components and the light field. Among components influencing the radiative transfer, the droplets of oil can cause overor underestimation of modelled and measured optical quantities, especially in closed seas and coastal zones. Oil content in the Baltic Sea varies from several ppb in the open sea to several ppm in estuaries or ship routes. Oil droplets become additional absorbents and attenuators in seawater causing changes in apparent optical properties. These changes can potentially enable remote optical detection of oil-in-water emulsion in visible bands. To demonstrate potential possibilities of such optical remote sensing, a study of inherent optical properties of two types of crude oil emulsion was conducted, i.e. high absorptive and strongly scattering Romashkino, and low absorptive and weakly scattering Petrobaltic. First, the calculations of spectral absorption and scattering coefficients as well as scattering phase functions for oil emulsions were performed on the basis of Lorentz-Mie theory for two different oil droplets size distributions corresponding to a fresh and 14-days aged emulsions. Next, radiative transfer theory was applied to evaluate the contribution of oil emulsion to remote sensing reflectance R_rs(?). Presented system for radiative transfer simulation is based on Monte Carlo code and it involves optical tracing of virtual photons. The model was validated by comparison of R_rs(?) simulated for natural seawater to R_rs(?) from in situ measurements in Baltic Sea. The deviation did not exceed 10% for central visible wavelengths and stayed within 5% for short and long wavelengths. The light Petrobaltic crude oil in concentration of 1 ppm causes typically a 10-30% increase of Rrs while the heavy Romashkino reduces Rrs for 30-50%.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2971/jeos.2013.13063]
Keywords: Seawater, oil-in-water emulsion, remote sensing reflectance, modelling
Full paper: http://www.jeos.org/index.php/jeos_rp/article/view/13063/1078

Spectral dependence of the correlation between the backscattering coefficient and the volume scattering function measured in the southern Baltic Sea

Direct measurements of the backscattering coefficient bb require the determination of the Volume Scattering Function (VSF) and its integration over a backward hemisphere. In sea water they are difficult and are therefore carried out very rarely. That is why the backscattering coefficient is much more frequently obtained with so-called single angle scattering meters: these operate by measuring the VSF for a fixed angle region of the backward hemisphere. This article examines the spectral variability of the correlation between directly measured backscattering coefficients and VSFs. Also presented are the averaged slopes of VSF spectra, measured in southern Baltic waters over a wide range of scattering angles.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5697/oc.54-3.355]
Keywords: volume scattering function, backscattering coefficient, Baltic Sea
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/54_3.html#A2

Revisiting the role of oceanic phase function in remote sensing reflectance

The effect of angular structure differences between measured and best-fit analytical phase functions of the equivalent backscattering ratio on calculated reflectance values was studied and shown to be significant. We used a Monte Carlo radiative transfer code to check the effect of choosing different analytical (several Fournier-Forand (1994) and Henyey-Greenstein (1941)) phase functions with backscattering ratios identical to the "classical" average Petzold function. We show that the additional variability of the resulting water leaving radiance is about 7% (4% between the Fournier-Forand functions themselves) for most scenarios. We also show a previously unknown maximum of the discrepancy (up to 10%) for highly scattering waters. We discuss the importance of relative differences in phase function for different angular ranges to this maximum and to the behaviour of the discrepancy as a function of solar zenith angle.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5697/oc.53-2.549]
Keywords: marine optics, phase functions, remote sensing reflectance, scattering
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/54_1.html#A2

Excitation of He atoms by 10-30 keV He+ impact

The anticrossing spectra of the helium line ?(1s4l_1s2p 3P) = 447.2 nm were measured for 10_30 keV He+_He collisions. The theoretical intensity functions were calculated taking into account cascade processes, the inhomogeneity of the axial electric field in the collision volume and the density distribution of the target He atoms. Comparing the theoretical intensities with the measured ones, the post-collisional states of He atoms were determined. The results indicate that for this projectile-energy range, the electronic charge distributions of the excited-atom states change from almost symmetric to strongly asymmetric ones with large electric dipole moments. This result suggests that for projectile energies of 20_30 keV, Paul-trap promotion becomes the main excitation mechanism.
Full paper: http://iopscience.iop.org/0953-4075/45/11/115203/pdf/0953-4075_45_11_115203.pdf

Variability in the optical properties of a crude oil - seawater emulsion

The paper presents some results of research on the fluorescence properties of petroleum oil-in-water emulsions. The research addresses the question of measuring and modelling light fields in an oil-polluted marine environment. The fluorescence of the emulsion manifests itself in the spectral range from 260 to over 400 ran and is much less intensive in the visible light region. Fluorescence is always weaker than the radiation scattered in an emulsion. The measurement and modelling of ultraviolet; radiation scattering requires fluorescence to be taken into consideration, but in the visible spectral region this phenomenon is negligible.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5697/oc.54-1.029]
Keywords: Seawater; Fluorescence; Light scattering; Petroleum; Emulsion
Full paper: http://http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0078323411500120

Laboratory measurements of light beam depolarization on turbulent convective flow

Laboratory measurements of light beam depolarization by a turbulent flow, corresponding to oceanic turbulence within the oceanic mixed layer, show that the depolarization rate ( 1×10-5 m-1 to 3×10-3 m-1 ) correlates with turbulence strength and is consistent with polarized lidar observations [ Opt. Express, 16, 1196 (2008)]. These results imply that one should be able to characterize oceanic turbulence with polarimetric oceanic lidar measurements.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/AO.49.003545]
Full paper: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-49-18-3545

The different uses of sea space in Polish Marine Areas: is conflict inevitable?

Seven major types of sea space use (Nature Protection Measures, Fisheries Exploitation, Geological Exploitation, recreation, Large Infrastructures, Navigation, Military uses) in the Polish Marine Areas are presented in terms of how muchspace is used (km2) for each use and the degree of overlap among the different uses.The greatest degree of conflict is noted with regard to Nature Protection (which overlaps with 60% of the areas used for Recreation and Geolog ical Exploitation), and Fisheries Exploitation (which overlaps with 60% of the areas used for Nature Protection, recreation, Infrastructure and Navigation). On the other hand, Fisheries Exploitation areas are the least disturbed by oth er users, and its major competitor is Nature Protection, which claims 20% of the are as used by fisheries. A GIS_based map that illustrates the degree of conflict is included, and the authors suggest participatory management as the proper way to minim size conflicts over sea space use and to promote the effective protection of natural resources.
Keywords: Marine protected areas, Spatial planning, Sea space use
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/523wesla.pdf

Ongoing Technical Activities and Nature Conservation Measures in Maritime Spatial Planning within the Polish Marine Areas

This paper presents an overview on ongoing and planned technical developments and its impacts in the Polish Marine Areas versus nature conservation measures. Relevant information have been collected through the national contacts, through screening of available environmental impact assessments (EIA) and from the author_s own experience which have been gathered during participation in the research and assessment projects. We point out growing environmental pressures from the new technical installations while some environmental effects are not well understood. We also point out that there is not sufficient knowledge about environmental effects of new large scale installations (particularly about wind power parks, pipelines and some coastal structures). We recognize potential conflicts with existing traditional activities (such as shipping and fishing) with planned new developments (such as wind farms and some coastal structures) and with the established protection measures (such as HELCOM BSPA and NATURA 2000 areas). Finally we offer some suggestions which should be useful in the maritime spatial planning.
Keywords: Baltic Sea, maritime spatial planning, large-scale technical installations, maritime regulations
Full paper:http://am.gdynia.pl/~zotremba/badania/publikacje/Andr+Otr_2010_PJOES.pdf or http://www.pjoes.com/pdf/19.3/553-563.pdf

Polarized phase functions in oil-in-water emulsion

Results of modeling of polarized phase functions (PPFs) in water polluted by oil-in-water emulsion are presented. The shapes of PPFs for various oil droplets size distributions and for two optically different oil types are shown for various wavelengths in the visible region. It is revealed that PPFs for two perpendicular planes are different for angl es greater than 50° (with even 2-fold difference close to 90°). Shapes of PPFs depend on the type of oil and on wavelength; oil droplets size distribution plays a minor role only.
Keywords: water, scattering, phase function, spectra, oil, emulsion
Full paper: http://am.gdynia.pl/~zotremba/badania/publikacje/optappl_3901p129.pdf or http://www.if.pwr.wroc.pl/~optappl/article.php?lp=676

Oil-in-water emulsion as a modifier of water reflectance

The paper presents a component of the water reflectance in the visible region, stimulated by oil-in-water emulsion in the concentration of 1 ppm. A proxy for reflectance which is in use in oceanic optics has been studied. A significant chan ge in reflectance for water contaminated by oil emulsion is revealed. In general, the reflectance generated by oil emulsion grows with light wavelength increase and in cases when small oil droplets dominate in oil-emulsion.
Keywords: water, reflectance, spectra, oil, emulsion
Full paper: http://am.gdynia.pl/~zotremba/badania/publikacje/optappl_3901p123.pdf or http://www.if.pwr.wroc.pl/~optappl/article.php?lp=676

Determination of petroleum pollutants in coastal waters of the Gulf of Gdansk

The paper presents an improved method of determining petroleum pollutants in water based on fluorescence, which allows the oil content to be estimated with an accuracy better than 50%. The method was used to measure the oil content in Gulf of Gdańsk seawater sampled at Gdynia-Orłowo between January 2006 and September 2008. The 174 measurements made during this period ranged from 1 to 120 _g kg-1, but the majority did not exceed 20 _g kg-1. The most probable level of contamination is c. 5 _g kg-1.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5697/oc.51-1.085]
Keywords: fluorescence, petroleum, seawater
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/511stelm.pdf

Light scattering in Baltic crude oil - seawater emulsion

The paper discusses the scattering of radiation by a Baltic crude oil - seawater emulsion. The scattering spectrum calculated using the Mie solution in the spectral range from 380 nm to 730 nm is compared with the measured spectrum of light scattered through a right angle. Spectra in the wavelength range from 210 nm to 730 nm were measured using a spectrofluorimeter for fresh and stored samples of the Baltic crude oil emulsion. Scattering increases with wavelength in the UV range and then decreases slightly with the wavelength of visible light. The result of the calculation is similar to the measured spectra. Both the calculated and measured spectra display numerous relative extremes throughout the spectral area. Light scattering in the emulsion decreases during storage as the oil concentration in the medium diminishes. The results also demonstrate that the single scattering model describes the phenomenon correctly.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5697/oc.51-3.405]
Keywords: emulsion, light scattering, petroleum, seawater
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/513stelm.pdf

Adsorption of natural surfactants present in sea waters at surfaces of minerals: contact angle measurements

The wetting properties of solid mineral samples (by contact angles) in original surfactant-containing sea water (Gulf of Gdańsk, Baltic) were characterised under laboratory conditions on a large set (31 samples) of well-classified stones of diverse hydrophobicity using the sessile drop (ADSA-P approach), captive bubble and inclined plate methods. An experimental relation between the static contact angle ?eq and stone density ? was obtained in the form ?eq = B? + C, where B = 12.23 _ 0.92, C = - (19.17 _ 0.77), and r2 = 0.92. The histogram of ?eq distribution for polished stone plates exhibited a multimodal feature indicating that the most abundant solid materials (hydrophilic in nature) have contact angles ?eq = 7.2, 10.7, 15.7 and 19.2o, which appear to be applicable to unspecified field stones as well. The contact angle, a pH-dependent quantity, appears to be a sensitive measure of stone grain size, e.g. granite. The captive bubble method gives reproducible results in studies of porous and highly hydrophilic surfaces such as stones and wood. The authors consider the adsorption of natural sea water surfactants on stone surfaces to be the process responsible for contact angle hysteresis. In the model, an equation was derived for determining the solid surface free energy from the liquid's surface tension ?LV it also enabled the advancing ?A and receding ?R contact angles of this liquid to be calculated. Measurements of contact angle hysteresis ?? (=?A - ?R) with surfactant-containing sea water and distilled water (reference) on the same stone surfaces allowed the film pressure ?? (1.22 to 8.80 mJ m-2), solid surface free energy ??S (-17.03 to -23.61 mJ m-2) and work done by spreading ?WS (-1.23 to -11.52 mJ m-2) to be determined. The variability in these parameters is attributed to autophobing, an effect operative on a solid surface covered with an adsorptive layer of surfactants. The wetting behaviour of solid particles is of great importance in numerous technological processes including froth flotation, demulgation, anti-foaming procedures and the coal industries. It is believed that the approach presented here and the examples of its application to common sea water/solid mineral systems could be successfully adapted to optimise several surfactant-mediated adsorption processes (see below) of practical value in natural water ecology.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5697/oc.51-3.377 ]
Keywords: solid-liquid interface, film-covered surface, sea water, contact angle hysteresis, film pressure, work of spreading
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/513pogor.pdf

Environmental Concerns Related to Existing and Planned Technical Installations in the Baltic Sea

This paper describes the selection of the most important technical installations already operating or planned in the Baltic Sea. It highlights maritime regulations related to these installations and describes current practices utilized for the preparation of environmental impact assessments (EIA). It assumes that there is an adequate international legal system for protection of the Baltic natural environment. However, it points out some cases when this legal system does not sufficiently work, particularly during the process of EIA preparation.
Keywords: Baltic Sea, large-scale technical installations, transboundary environmental effects, maritime regulations
Full paper: http://www.pjoes.com/pdf/17.2/173-179.pdf

Crude oil derivatives on sea water: Signatures of spreading dynamics

The dynamics of different liquid hydrocarbons (including crude oil and their derivatives) spreading over a deep layer of an original sea water surface is studied by video-enhanced microscopy and dynamic tensiometry in laboratory conditions. The water subphase had well-defined viscoelastic properties (derived from supplementary stress-relaxation Langmuir trough measurements) resulting from the presence of natural surfactants at sea. The latter method was not suitable for measuring the oil spreading rate at interfaces where surface active material layer of particular elastic properties is already present, because changes in surface tension then were caused by compression of the interfacial film rather than by the spreading of oil. Classical tension-gradient-driven spreading theory, developed for pure, nonvolatile, and immiscible liquid spreading on a second liquid predicts lens expansion rates that are higher by a factor of 6_9 than those experimentally observed for natural sea water. The fitting constants K (0.11_0.94) and power-law exponents n (0.10_0.79) of the spreading oil lens radius_time equation rL ~ K tn, however widely distributed, are apparently dependent on the dilational viscoelasticity of the sea water surface (and remaining air/oil and water/oil interfaces as well). The spreading data revealed the two spreading regimes: short-time diffusive (n = 1/2) and long-time convective (n = 3/4), limited by the network phase. An important observation is that oil viscosity and density have a minor effect on the rate of spreading. In addition, the obtained parameters together with surface properties of the natural surfactant-containing water body stand for principal input data required in modeling of surface tension gradient-driven oil spill spreading at sea.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2007.11.015]
Keywords: Liquids wettability; Lens geometry; Power-law correction; Seasurface films; Elasticity effect; Optical method
Full paper: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924796308002534

Evolution of natural sea surface film structure as a tool for organic matter dynamics tracing

The paper contains the results of natural film experiments carried out on inland waters in the Dead Vistula catchment area during 2000_2002 using the integrated Langmuir trough_Wilhelmy plate system. The static film parameters result from the generalized scaling procedures applied to the surface pressure-area isotherms and surface pressure_temperature isochores. They appear to reflect in a quantitative and sensitive way the film composition (Alim, Mw, Eisoth), film solubility and the miscibility of its components (via R, ?Sc and y factors), kinetic mobility of surfactant molecules (ßs, ?k), and its surface concentration (?eq, ?eq). There is a reason to suggest that certain classes of film-forming components or _end-members_ may dominate the static and dynamic surface properties. Variation in the surface rheological parameters of source-specific surfactants is postulated to reflect organic matter dynamics in natural waters and were measured for the Dead Vistula river, its tributaries and the adjacent sea coastal area. The obtained results demonstrate that natural films are o complex mixture of biopolymeric molecules covering a wide range of solubilities, surface activities and molecular masses with a complex interfacial architecture. For the first time, the apparent solvent polarity effect on the structure and surface parameters of ex-situ formed natural sea microlayer films was quantitatively evaluated by means of the author's scaling procedures applied to unique Brewster angle microscopy and Langmuir trough isotherm data on Mediterranean Sea samples obtained by others.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2008.02.011]
Keywords: Baltic Sea; Natural-surfactant films; Surface rheology; Film structure quantification; Spatial-temporal-seasonal variability
Full paper: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924796308002546

Oil droplets as light absorbents in seawater

This paper presents spectra of light absorption coefficient of oil-in-water emulsion, derived using the Mie theory. In order to achieve that concentration of oil, degree of oil dispersion in seawater as well as spectra of light absorption coefficient and refractive index of chosen oils must be known. A significant role of the size distribution of oil droplets has been revealed: light absorption coefficient of emulsion increases with the rate of dispersion.
OCIS codes: (010.7340) Water; (010.4450) Ocean optics; (160.4760) Optical properties;(300.1030) Absorption; (300.6170) Spectra; (999.9999) Marine pollution monitoring
Full paper: http://kepler.am.gdynia.pl/OpEx2007.pdf or search in http://www.opticsinfobase.org

Improved method of Fournier-Forand marine phase function parameterization

Volume scattering functions (VSFs) and other optical seawater parameters were measured during a cruise in the Southern Baltic. Phase functions (PFs) calculated from VSFs were compared with Fournier-Forand phase functions parameterized with backscattering ratios. Due to significant divergences between experimental and modeled data a new method of Fournier-Forand phase function parameterization is proposed.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.15.012763]
Full paper: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-15-20-12763

Measurements of Scattering Function of sea water in Southern Baltic

The Volume Scattering Functions (VSF) were measured in Southern Baltic area. The instrument used to this aim allow to measure in full range of angles and for four wavelengths. Obtained characteristics create the set of data which is need to solve the radiative transfer equation. Measured functions were compared with Petzold Average-Particle Phase Function. Spectral variations of measured scattering coefficients and backscattering coefficients are presented. Furthermore the instability of measured scattering ratios is discussed in this paper. Such instability have not been mentioned in the literature before.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1140/epjst/e2007-00119-6]
Full paper: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1140%2Fepjst%2Fe2007-00119-6

Discrimination of petroleum fluorescence spectra

This paper presents studies of the total spectra (fluorescence_excitation matrix) of petroleum with regard to the utilization of fluorescence for determining petroleum pollutants. Thorough testing of one group, comprising almost forty lubricating oils in the form of their hexane solutions, points out their discrimination.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bio.1004]
Keywords: fluorescence;petroleum
Full paper: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bio.1004/pdf

Hydrocarbons on sea water: steady-state spreading signatures determined by an optical method

The spreading properties of several hydrocarbons (vegetable, engine, gear and crude oils) on distilled and artificial sea water were determined under laboratory conditions using a novel optical method. With the aid of Langmuir's equation, the geometrical signatures of a discrete lens of each hydrocarbon droplet floating on a water tank served to calculate the entering E (31.30-94.18 mN m-1) and spreading S (-3.50 to -57.49 mN m-1) coefficients, and equilibrium thicknesses t? (0.20-1.25 cm). They appeared to be in agreement with the values derived from direct interfacial tension measurements (Wilhelmy plate and stalagmometer methods). Empirical relations of the normalized lens radius rL / rdrop and S on the water surface tension ?AW were postulated as being of significant value in oil spill assessment studies at sea. The parameters obtained together with the surface properties of a natural surfactant-containing water body represent the principal input data required for modelling the spreading of a surface-tension-gradient-driven oil spill at sea.
Keywords: liquid wettability, crude oil derivatives, oil pollution geometry, optical method, contamination, assessment relations
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/493szmyt.pdf

Variability in the optical properties of a crude oil - seawater emulsion

The paper analyses the optical properties of a crude oil - seawater emulsion, which is a form of petroleum pollution of the sea. These properties depend on the spillage concentration, the optical characteristics of the seawater and oil in question, and on the size distribution of the oil droplets. They may be described by the attenuation specific cross-sections and absorption specific cross-sections. Specific cross-sections and other optical parameters for droplets of a Baltic crude oil - Baltic seawater emulsion were calculated using Mie's solution. These characteristics were computed for fresh and weathered petroleum.
Keywords: Baltic, Petroleum, Emulsion, Light scattering
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/48_S.html#A11

Modelling of polarised light interaction with turbid medium

Polarisational properties of light scattered in turbid media are considered in this paper. First approximation of these media is the model of suspension which includes the group of scattering centres with these same optical properties given by a complex refractive index and various sizes characterised by a size distribution. If any turbid medium is lightened by partly polarised beam of light described by the Stokes vector then the light scattered on the centres might be polarised too. Stokes vectors of incident beam together with scattered beam are connected by sixteen elemental scattering matrix. On the assumption that turbid medium fulfils limitations of the Mie theory (spherical and homogeneous particles and lack of absorption of exterior medium) scattering matrix is reduced to four independent elements. The group of algorithms based on the Mie solution which allow to model those four elements of the scattering matrix was created in the MATLAB. The results of this modelling for an oil emulsion in synthetic seawater are presented.
[DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.629483
Keywords: scattering matrix, oil droplets
Full paper: http://spie.org/Publications/Proceedings/Paper/10.1117/12.629483

Influence of oil dispersed in seawater on the bi-directional reflectance distribution function (BRDF)

The bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of the sea areas polluted by oil-in-water emulsion has been studied at the ends and in the centre of the visible light spectrum. The Monte Carlo code was applied to model water leaving radiance for the entire upper hemisphere. Solar irradiance was represented by 1 billion virtual photons which reach the sea surface at an angle of 40 deg. The results are displayed as the BRDF vs. two variables: zenith and azimuth angles. The strong impact of wavelength on the BRDF has been revealed while, the size distribution of oil droplets has an insignificant impact. The presence of oil emulsion modifies the shape of the BRDF significantly, and the latter depends on the oil type. Irradiance reflectances and radiance reflectances derived from BRDFs obtained are also presented.
Keywords: oil, seawater, phase function, inherent optical properties (IOP), radiance, bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), modeling
Full paper: http://am.gdynia.pl/~zotremba/badania/publikacje/Otremba2005.pdf

Modelling the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) of seawater polluted by an oil film

The Bi-directional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) of both clean seawaters and those polluted with oil film was determined using the Monte Carlo radiative transfer technique in which the spectrum of complex refractive index of Romashkino crude oil and the optical properties of case II water for chosen wavelengths was considered. The BRDF values were recorded for 1836 solid angular sectors of throughout the upper hemisphere. The visibility of areas polluted with oil observed from various directions and for various wavelengths is discussed.
OCIS codes: (330.1800) Contrast sensitivity; (010.4450) Ocean optics; (310.6860) Thin film, optical properties; (999.9999) Modelling of BRDF; (999.9999) Marine pollution monitoring
Full paper: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/view_article or search in http://www.opticsinfobase.org

Modelling the bidirectional reflectance distribution functions (BRDF) of sea areas polluted by oil

The paper discusses the possibilities of modelling the bi-directional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) in sea areas polluted by oil. Three sea basin models are considered: a coastal one free of oil, one polluted by an oil film and one polluted by an oil emulsion. The following concentrations of oil were compared: for the film, 1 cm3 of oil per 1 m2 water surface, for the emulsion 1 cm3 of oil in 1 m3 of water. The optical properties of Romashkino crude oil were taken into consideration, as were various angles of incident solar light. The conversion of BRDFs into a directional distribution of the optical contrast of polluted areas is demonstrated.
Keywords: Reflectance, BRDF, Remote sensing, Radiance
Full paper: http://www.iopan.gda.pl/oceanologia/464otrem.pdf

Fluorescence method for the determination of oil identity

The paper presents an objective method for distinction and identification of oils based on the comparison of total fluorescence spectra of their hexane solutions. The spectra comparison was conducted by means of the determination of the differences between the normalized functions, which describe the internal fluorescence efficiencies of the solutions of the substances under investigation. A criterion of oil identity, which involves limited accuracy of spectra measurement, has been defined. The efficiency of the method was tested on 51 lubrication oils.
Keywords: fluorescence;petroleum
Full paper:

Modeling the remotely sensed optical contrast caused by oil suspended in the sea water column

The reflectance of sea areas polluted by an oil-in-water emulsion was modeled using the radiance transfer Monte Carlo code. Example results of the contrast function parameterized by the observation angle for various angles of incident sunlight, various sea surface roughness states and two optically different types of seawaters are presented.
OCIS codes: (290.0290) Scattering; (280.0280) Remote sensing; (010.4450) Ocean optics; (350.4990) Particles; (010.7340) Water
Full paper: http://kepler.am.gdynia/pl/OpEx2003.pdf or search in http://www.opticsinfobase.org

Degradation of Crude Oil Film on the Surface of Seawater: the Role of Luminous, Biological and Aqutorial Factors

Samples of water were collected from the port of Gdynia and the Gulf of Gdansk (Southern Baltic Sea), and were artificially covered by oil film and stored at a constant temperature. One part of samples was stored in darkness and the second batch was placed under artificial light. Change in the composition of oil on the water surface was determined by means of gas chromatography. Results indicate a greater rate of degradation for the film which covered port water than water from the Gulf of Gdansk. It was revealed that light decreases the rate of biodegradation of an oil film.
Keywords: crude oil, seawater, oil film, biodegradation, photooxidation
Full paper: http://www.pjoes.com/pdf/11.5/555-559.pdf

The environmental effects of the installation and functioning of the submarine SwePol Link HVDC transmission line: a case study of the Polish Marine Area of the Baltic Sea

This paper describes the two-phase study of the environmental impact of the SwePol Link submarine electrical energy transfer system between Sweden and Poland. During the first phase (1997_1998), the potential effects of proposed technical solutions for the transmission line and different routes across the Baltic Sea were analysed. During the second phase (1999_2000), studies on environmental and background conditions before cable installation (1999) and studies on the environmental effects after cable system installation (2000) were undertaken. During this phase, underwater TV and video inspection of the bottom, observations of the bottom habitats by scuba-divers, sampling and laboratory analysis of macrozoobenthos and measurements of the earth_s magnetic field were conducted. Underwater observations along the cable route indicated that one year after the cable had been laid no mechanical disturbances on the dynamic sandy bottom were visible. Studies of the bottom macrofauna indicated that there had been no significant changes in zoobenthos species composition, abundance or biomass which could have been clearly related to cable installation. Changes in the components of the magnetic field, although significant in the vicinity of the cable itself, did not exceed natural variability at a distance of 20 m.
Keywords: Marine environment; Underwater power cables; Zoobenthos; Baltic Sea; Polish Exclusive Economic Zone
Full paper: http://am.gdynia.pl/~zotremba/badania/publikacje/2003-Cable.pdf

Modelling of the optical contrast of an oil film on a sea surface

The water-leaving radiance field above a sea surface polluted by an oil film has been modelled using a Monte Carlo radiative transfer technique with large numbers of photons incident at a selected zenith angle. The calculated radiance was recorded for each of the 240 sectors of equal solid angle the upper hemisphere had been divided into. The results are presented in the form of a bi-directional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) and as a contrast function parameterised by observation angle for various angles of incident sunlight and for various states of the sea surface roughness. The conditions for observing maximal and minimal contrast are described.
OCIS codes: (330.1800) Contrast sensitivity; (010.4450) Ocean optics; (310.0310) Thin film, optical properties; (999.9999) Modelling of radiance; (999.9999) Marine pollution monitoring
Full paper: http://www.opticsinfobase.org/view_article or search in http://www.opticsinfobase.org

The impact on the reflectance in VIS of a type of crude oil film floating on the water surface

This paper reports the reflective features of a water surface covered with an oil film expressed by the dependence of the reflectance on the angle of light incidence and wavelength a nd film thickness with respect to downward and upward light fluxes. The sensitivity of the shape of these functions on the oil type appears especially strong in case of the upward light fluxes as opposed to downward fluxes.
OCIS codes: (310.6860) Thin films; (010.4450) Ocean optics; (010.7340) Water
Full paper: http://kepler.am.gdynia.pl/OpEx2000.pdf or search in http://www.opticsinfobase.org

ARTUKUŁY W POZOSTAŁYCH CZASOPISMACH

oil identification based on total synchronous spectra

Contribution of marine carriage in the global transport is in permanent developing. It leads to increase the unintentional oil spills, which may induce serious disturbances in functioning of the natural marine ecosystem, especially when it interferes with other technical activities in the marine space. That fact contributes to increase the interest in searching of new research techniques to protect the natural ecosystem. Therefore, the main task of marine international organisations concentrates on the effective and rapid detection of oil spill and on the possibility of identifying oil pollutants as well as on origin of pollution.
The purpose of the study is to characterise the oil belonging to the vessel engine lubricate oils. We analyse the stage results of investigations based on one of types of fluorescence spectroscopy, namely: synchronous spectra. To characterise the oil, the Aqualog Horiba spectrofluorometer was applied, which allows performing precise measurement in a short time. Based on the measured excitation-emission spectra, total synchronous fluorescence spectra for oil were obtained using various wavelength intervals. Total synchronous fluorescence spectra of petroleum substances allow finding wavelength interval typical for particular type of oil. This approach could allow obtaining of complex mixtures, such as oils, more efficient description. We discuss the total synchronous fluorescence spectra for engine oil (Marinol type) dissolved in n-hexane in various concentrations of oil as a possible tool proposed to oil type identification. We present changes and variation of the total synchronous fluorescence spectra for oil with various oil concentrations.
The main assumption of this study is expectation that reflection of the light from the surface of define oil contain spectral information about features of oil. In this paper, there are presented spectral dependencies of reflectivity for the light which incidents the surfaces of various examples of oil, namely: crude oil Romashkino, lubricate oil Marinol, fuel oil L-l. Such information can help in the future in preparation the remote (touchless) method of detection the quality of define exploitive oil substance or changes of its properties.
Keywords: fluorescence spectroscopy, total synchronous spectra, lubricate oil, vessel engine room, marine environment
Full paper: Journal of KONES Powertrain and Transport, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 15-20

Optical properties of crude oil detected in seawater

The effects of crude oils entering marine environment have been investigated since early 1960s when oil pollution became a subject of global environmental concern. Extraction and transportation of crude oils have been contributing to water pollution especially in closed water basins, such as the Baltic Sea. It was estimated that yearly oil input to the Baltic Sea amounts to 21-70 thousands of tons, which is twice higher than in the North Sea and three times higher man in the North Atlantic. Growing pollution loads into the Baltic Sea created a demand for multifarious studies on :he environmental effects of oil products. In this study, we focus on bio-optical and ecological aspects of the presence ."'crude oil in seawater. Dispersed oil droplets occur in seawater as the result of contaminated river inflows, bilge water discharges and as the consequence of mechanical and chemical dispersion of oil spills. Their optical properties depend on oil type, concentration and size distribution. We present further results obtained from the developed fluorescence-based method for determination of the crude oil concentration in natural Baltic seawater and for evaluation of the oil droplets size by applying vacuum filtering. The results have been measured for the samples collected in Southern Baltic Sea during several ship cruises in 2012. We discuss the application of vacuum filtering in the fluorescence analyses in the context of laboratory, in situ andremote detection of dispersed oil.
Keywords: crude oil, marine ecology, fluorescence, seawater, oil pollution
Full paper: Journal of KONES Powertrain and Transport, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 127-132

Fluorescence properties of mechanically dispersed crude oil

Despite of numerous actions undertook by the global and local authorities towards protection of marine environment, oil pollution loads into the Baltic Sea still tend to increase and need to be continuously estimated in order to apply the legal regulations. There is a demand for multifarious studies on the environmental effects of oil products. Dispersed oil droplets occur in seawater as the result of contaminated river inflows, bilge water discharges and as the consequence of mechanical and chemical dispersion of oil spills. Their optical properties depend on oil type concentration and size distribution. Oil content influences many environmental factors, like water quality and bio-optical parameters (e.g. water-leaving radiance, inherent optical properties, seawater fluorescence).
We present a unique study of the collected database of crude oil fluorescence spectra for better understanding the correlations between oil optical properties and its concentration, as well as for evaluation of the oil droplets size by the application of vacuum filtering using three filters of different permeability. Fluorescence spectra have been registered for oil-in-water emulsion samples prepared in the laboratory by mechanical dispersion. We discuss the optical properties of crude oil and the relationships between them in the context of potential remote detection of dispersed oil in seawater.
Keywords: crude oil, marine ecology, fluorescence, seawater, oil pollution
Full paper: Journal of KONES Powertrain and Transport, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 161-167

Laboratory study of effectiveness of sorbents intended for oil spill combating

While various floating objects driven by combustion engines are exploited, unintentional oil spill might be done (caused by fuel, lubricant or gear leaks). So arisen undesirable pollution is usually removed from water environment using various types of booms, pumps and skimmers as well as by various oil-sorption materials. Sometimes oil spills are dispersed into bulk of water (only in water-areas that are rich with oil-consumption bacteria). The reason for undertaking investigations described in this paper was a real problem with oil pollution in narrow spaces of port and shipyard basins, marines and inland shipping routes. The paper describes study on sorptivity of chosen materials proposed as measures to combat oil spills on the water surface. Natural, synthetic and mineral materials were investigated at laboratory conditions, which was based on contacting those materials with, on the one hand, only water and - on the second hand - with oil in two ways, namely: with oil only and with oil as a film on the water surface. The authors presents in graphical form dependencies of sorptivity on a type of sorbent and on the time. In addition, air temperature, oxygen content in the water, density and viscosity oil are registered. The data obtained from the measurements play a role input data to establish procedure for usefulness of defines sorbent-materials in define conditions of application
Keywords: fuels, lubricant oil, maritime engineering, environmental protection
Full paper: Journal of KONES Powertrain and Transport, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 245-254

coefficient of light reflection foreseen for chosen oils

Properties of oil substances manifest themselves by numerous physical, chemical and physicochemical parameters. Among various physical parameters (like temperature dependencies of the density or the friction coefficient), optical parameters can be underlined, namely: coefficient of light refraction and coefficient of light absorption, both as dependencies on the light wavelength. Those parameters are only primary optical characteristics of define substance, because in fact they constitute input data for example in the calculation other optical waveforms like light reflection coefficient (reflectivity), which can be useful in techniques in which oil plays any role. Reflectivity is a value in electrodynamics theory when the light is treated as an electromagnetic wave and can be derived from Maxwell equations for the plane wave which incidence the air-oil interface.
The main assumption of this study is expectation that reflection of the light from the surface of define oil contain spectral information about features of oil. In this paper, there are presented spectral dependencies of reflectivity for the light which incidents the surfaces of various examples of oil, namely: crude oil Romashkino, lubricate oil Marinol, fuel oil L-l. Such information can help in the future in preparation the remote (touchless) method of detection the quality of define exploitive oil substance or changes of its properties.
Keywords: oil, reflectometry
Full paper: Journal of KONES Powertrain and Transport, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 375-379

Modelling of visibility of oil dispersed in the sea water column

Oil pollution in marine environment is a serious threat both to a variety of animals living in it and the people who benefit from this wealth. These impurities may occur in the depths of the sea as a result of discharges from ships, naval disasters, failures of underwater systems of oil extraction and transportation as well as polluted inflows from the land. The pollutions may be present on the surface in the form of oil layers or films that can be readily observed remotely. But they may also arise in the form of an emulsion of oil beneath the surface of the water. In this case the oil contamination detection is difficult. In this paper we consider the impact of underwater oil emulsion layer (5 m) on the property which is measured remotely - remote sensing reflectance RSR. The RSR values were calculated using the Monte Carlo method for the Inherent Optical Properties measured in the Gulf of Mexico where the Deepwater Horizon oil spill occurred between late April and mid July 2010. Influence of the depth at which the layer of emulsion exists - on visibility of "oil-cloud" is evidenced. In the studied case the observed contrast of oiled area is negative and reaches zero for the depth exceeding 20 m.
Keywords: seawater pollution, oil emulsion, photon trace simulation, light field reconstruction, remote sensing
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2013/vol20/no1/JO%20KONES%202013%20NO%201%20VOL%2020%20FREDA.pdf

Concept of the skimmer specialized for oil removal from the port waters concept of the skimmer specialized for oil removal from the port waters

Project analysis to meet needs for equipment customized to pumping out surface forms of oil in the port and other narrow basins are reported in this paper. New elements of the technical concept of the skimmer to eliminate the disadvantages of structurally similar devices are proposed - essential components of the new type of skimmer currently elaborating in the Student Scientific Society "Nautica" (at Faculty of Marine Engineering of the Gdynia Maritime University) are demonstrated. The first motivation to this work is that the consequence of growing usage of ships in the world transport is necessity to search for more fast and efficient methods to remove oil pollutions from the water surface and the second one - preparation of appropriate training and research equipment for the continuous improvement of its construction as well as the manner of its use in variety conditions. Port areas are relatively small and they have numerous hard to navigate places, therefore oils which leaked from ships or transloading equipment are difficult to remove from the water surface. Those all factors promote the development of the new and innovative solutions for more efficient water treatment. New solutions of the technical concept of the skimmer are proposed here - among other the theoretically justifiable triangular inlet openings with the system of vertical positionnig relative to the water surface.
Keywords: oil-spill combat, maritime engineering, environmental protection
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2013/vol20/no2/Journal%20of%20KONES%202013%20NO%202%20VOL%2020%20KONCZEWICZ.pdf

Fluorescence spectra of oil after it contacts with aquatic environment

The main task for natural marine environment protection is to prevent the inflow of various contaminants including oil substances and the real challenge is the ability to rapidly detect these pollutants. Moreover important is to find the source or the maker of the oil spill. In this paper, we consider fundamental physical aspects in the area of possibility of monitoring the natural marine ecosystem based on fluorescence spectroscopy. We utilize the fluorescence ability of numerous oil components - mainly polycyclic hydrocarbons. The paper concerns the spectrofluorimetric characterization of oils have been in use during exploitation of the marine fleet, i.e. lubricate oil, fuels, transformer and hydraulic oils as well as crude oils or their residues. Every kind of oil has a chance to enter the marine environment, especially in a case of ship emergency or after collision with other vessel ore shoreline structure as well as when ship enters the stranding. After discharge of oil, some of oil components are dissolved in the water, bacteria or photochemical reactions, which results in transformation of composition of oil, degrade some. Fluorescence spectrometer Perkin Elmer LS55 was applied to obtain the fluorescence spectra using different excitation wavelength in the range from 240 nm to 500 nm. We discuss the changes of the shapes of excitation emission spectra (EEMs) of various types of oil and the EEMs spectra after contact of oil with seawater as an oil-inwater emulsion, which is the most frequent form of oil in the water column. Significant changes in the shape of spectra and displacement of the peaks are observed
Keywords: oil pollution, fluorescence spectroscopy, excitation-emission spectra, seawater, environment protection
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2013/vol20/no3/JO%20KONES%202013%20NO%203%20VOL%2020%20BASZANOWSKA%20S.pdf

Study on oil sorbents effectiveness

The paper presents search for objective and quantitative method of determination usefulness of various loose sorbents destined for cleaning surfaces polluted with oil. The motivation to take up the topic is that oil pollution emergence in marine areas remains still as the environmental problem. During the ship exploitation there is possibility of appearing of the fuel oil, lubricating oil, hydraulic oil or even transformer oil leaks on the board which might be erased by washing or using sorbent powders and granules or mates. In the case of disposing the washing liquids, the large volume of oil-in-water emulsion is forming which is gathered in a tank and further transported to the vessel cleaning system. In the case when sorbents are applied in an early phase of oil leakage, the vessel cleaning system is less overloaded which reduce the probability of failure. We report analyses of effectiveness of mineral and organic sorbents. The time-period of incepting of defined amount of oil by define amount of sorbent is applied as the sorption effectiveness parameter. Time plots of oil sorption as well as visualizations of this process are presented. Method to characterize the efficiency of sorbents in relation to used lubricating oil is proposed which will stand as the base for further works directed towards elaborating optimal sorbent-set which can be rapidly used for combat spillages and leaks of oils and even other liquid dangerous payloads carried by ships.
Keywords: fuels, lubricant oil, maritime engineering, environmental protection
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2013/vol20/no1/JO%20KONES%202013%20NO%201%20VOL%2020%20KONCEWICZ.pdf

Oil residuals in the sea: comparison its optical features with optical properties of the seawater

Growing intensity of marine transport results in the increase of the amount of oil pollution released into the sea water. The presence of oil in the sea, which is thought to have come from accidental spills or tanker disaster, is connected mainly with the daily operation of marine engines. Pollution from ships engines, can reach the sea water masses together with ballast or bilge water as the result of human error or a failure of marine equipment. This paper is focused on a comparison of the optical properties of marine waters and oil substances. These include the spectra of absorption coefficient, spectra of scattering coefficient and scattering phase-function (for different wavelength) which describes an angular distribution of scattered light intensity in the sea water. The light scattering phase function depends on the water constituents like mineral suspensions, zooplankton and phytoplankton cells, gas bubbles or so-called yellow substances as well as oil droplets of water pollution. Detection of oil substances in the sea can be effective when it is done remotely, from ships, buoys, inshore or offshore towers, the decks of aircraft or satellites. The knowledge of the listed above properties of natural (clean) seawater is necessary, because they determine the field of light coming out from the sea and allow interpret images of sea surface from point of view of crude oil and the petroleum products detection. In this study we also discuss optical contrast of oil residuals in the sea in various sea regions.
Keywords: marine transport, oil slicks, seawater, inherent optical features, sea surface imaging.
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2012/vol19/no1/13.pdf

SPECTROSCOPIC METHODS IN APPLICATION TO OIL POLLUTION DETECTION IN THE SEA

The escalating maritime transport as well as offshore crude oil exploitation and pipeline transportation leads to the increase of feasibility of the discharge of petroleum substances to the sea environment events. Therefore, it is necessary to rapidly detect of oil pollution to minimize the extent of contamination in the seawater. The aim of this study is to discuss the assumptions of the optical methods using for detection of oil pollution in the seawater. We consider the different approaches of oil-in-water detection using spectral active and passive techniques with emphasis on fluorescence techniques. The intensive development of scientific apparatus and methods in light spectroscopy leads to build various airborne or underwater specialized devices (UV-, IR-scanners, fluorosensors), which allows to detect oil pollution in relatively large areas of the sea. The possibility of measurements of oil pollution in the seawater is particularly important for monitoring, especially in very difficult weather conditions and highly waved sea surface. Such possibilities should be given by devices for in-situ measurements based on time-resolved fluorescence. Such measurements allow obtaining the significant information about presence of oil in really short time. As we show in this study, the wide-range development of fluorescence techniques opens the diagnostic opportunity not only for detection of the oil-in-water content but also for identification the type of oil directly in seawater or even determination of the source of oil pollution.
Keywords: marine transport, oil pollution, spectroscopic methods, fluorescence, time-resolved fluorescence
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2012/vol19/no1/2.pdf

NEW TECHNICAL USES OF MARINE SPACE OF THE BALTIC SEA

The Baltic Sea area has already been intensively used by variety of maritime economic sectors such as marine transport, fishing, tourism, extraction of sand and gravel and oil and gas exploitation. This is also an area of relatively intense military penetration. In addition, this is a place of various other investments, e.g. coastal technical infrastructure (port and transshipment terminals constructions, as well as technical measures of the shoreline defense against transgression of the sea), electrical energy transmission systems (high voltage cables plus large scale electrodes) and natural gas transmission huge pipelines. Over the next decades, the use of the Baltic Sea will expand rapidly, particularly due to constructions of new coastal and offshore wind farms, electrical energy transfer network, further intensification of various forms of shipping, development and construction of new ports and terminals and installing new oil extraction platforms. Some of these activities influences natural spatial distribution of physical properties of the sea space (such as acoustic field, magnetic field, salinity distribution etc.) as well as disturb different natural processes (such as natural coastal dynamics, sedimentation, migration patterns of mobile species etc). In order to present this problem, most important existing activities as well as the most recent large-scale constructions in the Baltic Sea are selected and presented in this study (with emphasis on the Polish Exclusive Economic Zone). Moreover most likely disturbances of natural distributions of physical properties of marine space are analyzed in light of the impact on the environment.
Keywords: marine transport, large scale constructions, physical fields, marine environment protection
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2012/vol19/no1/38.pdf

THE EUROPEAN CONTROLLING SYSTEM TO REDUCE OIL DISCHARGES IN THE SEA

Ship-origin operational discharges of oil mainly include the discharge of bilge water from motor rooms, fuel oil sludge and oily ballast water from fuel tanks. Also, various tankers can illegally discharge of tank-washing residues. Accidental discharges can appear when ship collide or come in distress at sea (e.g. engine breakdown, fire, explosion, pipeline breaks). There is necessity of continuous inspection of marine shipping routes, especially in environmentally sensitive areas (e.g. whole Baltic Sea). If protection against oil pollution is considered - the coastal nations of the North Sea are formed in the Bonn Agreement, whereas coastal nations of the Baltic Sea are formed in the HELCOM convention. Both organizations carrying out the international aerial surveillances and manage international oil-combat systems. Unfortunately, air surveillance can operate mainly in good weather, good visibility and in daylight. The surface of the whole world is observed independently on the time of day and weather by antennas of Synthetic Aperture Radars (SAR) of dozen military satellites with resolution of several meters. Some civil satellites equipped with SAR, supply every few days a set of signals which in ground-based centres are transformed to image of a define area of the sea surface. In these images, the shapes of places, which can be interpreted as polluted by an oil film, are shown. The system is introduced after EU directive and managed by European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA). EMSA has developed the CleanSeaNet service - a satellite based monitoring system for marine oil spill detection. Advantages and limitations of the SAR-methods are discussed in this study. Physical, meteorological and hydrological as well as organizational conditions for effective use of this system are considered.
Keywords: marine transport, oil pollution detection, satellite surveillance, CleanSeaNet
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2012/vol19/no2/45.pdf

SHIP AS A SOURCE OF THE SEA POLLUTION WITH OIL

The subject of marine vessel as a source of the sea pollution was taken because of very adverse impact of petroleum pollutants on the natural environment. Oil pollutions concern especially marine environment. However, petroleum inflows to the sea from many different sources, exploitation of the fleet are one of the significant causes of oil presence in the marine environment. MARPOL Convention requires the states parties thereto to monitor the state of contamination [3] and this is a second reason of taking this subject. During the past years, several tests of petroleum content in the Gulf of Gdansk were made by the Physics Department of Gdynia Maritime University. In total 115 samples of water were collected and analyzed during the period from 2004 to 2009 year in the Gulf of Gdansk, which is an area of intense ships traffic because of two great complexes of harbors located in Gdansk and in Gdynia. These tests were carried out with the help of Institute of Oceanology Polish Academy of Sciences during cruises of the r.v. "Oceania". Petroleum concentration in seawater was determined by means of improved fluorescence method. Oil in water concentration ranged from value below of the detection limit, that is 10-9 (<1 ppb), up to 3.5.10-7 (350 ppb). Average concentration of oil was 4.3.10-8 (43 ppb). Obtained results confirmed that Vistula River could be a source of petroleum pollution of the Gulf of Gdansk. Apart from this, vessels are the significant sources of oil in the seawater too. The most polluted places were founded in the area where ships crossed the Gulf of Gdansk.
Keywords: maritime transport, seawater, petroleum, environmental protection, Gulf of Gdansk
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2012/vol19/no1/48.pdf

SPECTROFLUORYMETRY IN APPLICATION TO OIL-IN-WATER EMULSION CHARACTERIZATION

The question of identifying the type of oil in exploitation of engine room is associated with both the quality of ship consumables (fuels and lubricants) and the composition and origin of oil in settling tanks or in dumping water. Related issue is the possibility of determining the origin of oil, which is detected in the marine environment. The key question is how oils vary in their ability to fluorescence, understood as the shapes of fluorescence spectra obtained for different wavelengths of light exciting fluorescence. In this paper we present spectra of fluorescence for six chosen oils. Those oils were previously dispersed (emulsified) in the seawater, then extracted into hexane. Fluorescence spectra were obtained using fluorescence spectrometer Perkin Elmer LS55, for excitation wavelengths in the range from 240 nm to 500 nm, and emission wavelengths from 300 nm to 790 nm. In this paper there is shown that in general both total intensity of fluorescence and shapes of spectra of fluorescence depend on the excitation wavelength and are differ for various kinds of oil. In order to visually show the differences in fluorescence abilities of various oils, the results of measurement were placed on a chart of fluorescence intensities in the function of both variables: the excitation wavelength and the emission wavelength (so called the total fluorescence spectra). Analyses of results of the described studies confirm that the different oils fluoresce differently and identification of type of oil is possible by fluorescence spectrophotometry.
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2011/vol18/no3/41.pdf

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF FUELS AND LUBRICANTS VS. AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ISSUES

Oils can be optically described by two parameters: light absorption coefficient and light refraction coefficient. Spectrum of absorption coefficient manifests itself in colour of oil, whereas spectrum of refraction coefficient impacts on both refractive and reflective properties of interface between oil and surroundings. Both spectra of absorption coefficient and refraction coefficient have distinctive slopes in ultraviolet edge of spectrum where values of mentioned coefficients decrease from extremely high in ultraviolet to relatively low in visual range. Possibility of perceiving of oil existing in the form of thin film or in the form of an emulsion depends on ambient light conditions and on mentioned optical properties. Additionally perceiving of oil depends on thickness of the oil film and on type of substrate on which oil is spread (water, metal etc.), as well as - if emulsion oil-in-water or water-in-oil is considered - on the droplets size distribution. The present paper begins with a review of optical properties of several oils. Next, an impact of changes of those properties on optical properties of an oil film (spread on water) as well as an impact of those properties on optical properties of oil-in-water emulsion is explained. Finally, exemplary results of numerical simulation of light transfer in marine environment (using above optical properties) - e.g. angular distributions of optical contrast of both sea areas clean and polluted by an oil-film are presented.
Keywords: oil film, fuels, lubricants, aquatic environment protection
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2011/vol18/no4/40.pdf

CONCEPT OF MULTIFUNCTIONAL SMALL CLEANUP SHIP

The Baltic Sea belongs to a global system of protected area and has a status of Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) which results in a mechanism for strict control on international shipping activities within designated areas through the UN International Maritime Organization (IMO). Countries can declare such areas, and then establish rules for their protection. Additionally almost the entire Polish coastline has been notified to the European Natura 2000 sites. Inside coastal NATURA 2000 areas some places are covered by increased protection because of belonging to a system of coastal and marine Baltic Sea Protected Areas (HELCOM BSPA). On the other hand intensive shiping in the vicinity of the Polish coast, high population density in the coast, tourism as well as coastal and marine industry necessitate special attention in relation to environment protection. Therefore, inter alia, novel techniques for the surveillance of purity of coast and coastal water are desirable. In the case of large spill - existing combating system provides only partly reducing of amount of oil entering the sea environment. Elimination of a greatest number of small oil spillages or discharges is possible, if well developed techniques and organization systems is used. The paper presents pre-project assumptions for small multifunctional ship designed for inshore activity - especially for port inspections and service, as well as for removal of floating and submerged rubbish and combating small oil spillages. We have analyzed possibility to achieve expected exploitive features of the ship using present knowledge for construction of small ship hulls applying principles of engine and navigational equipment steering for choosing the best route and for optimization the water surface cleaning-works as well as to minimize the energy consumption. We expect, that this ship - owing to main designations thanks to modern technical equipment and sophisticated software - will also fulfill conditions as an educational or as a training vessel.
Keywords: marine transport, oil pollution, environmental protection, port inspection, port services
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2010/vol17/no3/47.pdf

OCEAN OPTICS IN APPLICATION TO REMOTE DETECTION OF AN OIL-IN-WATER EMULSION ORIGINATING FROM THE ENGINE ROOM

Relatively great number of detected and confirmed oil spillages in the Polish marine areas reveals that discharge of oil substances from any one of a large number of ships to the marine environment is real in any time. Surface oil contamination can be easily detected by satellite or airborne radar techniques, but unfortunately oil dispersed in the bulk of water cannot be detected at the present. Discharge waters usually contain small amounts of oil substances in the form of dispersed droplets (emulsion). It is revealed that oil emulsion cause measurable changes in the optical properties of seawater. In practice, detection of changes of these properties should be possible by the standard radiance or irradiance reflectance meter. This paper presents a computed photon trace simulation applied to the marine environment polluted by oil-in-water emulsion. Model of marine area consists of whether conditions, sun elevation, sea depth, optical properties of seawater related to various transparency/turbidity: from clean oceanic waters to turbid coastal seawater (as water from Gulf of Gdansk is). Model of oil pollution is represented by oil droplets size distribution and by spectra of both attenuation coefficient and refraction-coefficient related to two optically absolutely different kinds of oil. It is revealed that the values of irradiance reflectance are significantly differ for the clean sea area in relation to the polluted one, even for small amounts of engine-room origin oil pollution.
Full paper: http://kones.eu/ep/2010/vol17/no3/48.pdf

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